Chapter 1: The Historical Context of Scientific Authority

The penalties for heresy in Europe were horrific and diverse. Religious leaders would travel from town to town, demanding confessions of sin from the populace. Those who admitted their misdeeds often faced severe punishments, such as whipping, or, if fortunate, were sent on an expensive pilgrimage.

Accusations of heresy could be made anonymously, and the accused had no right to legal counsel or the opportunity to confront their accusers in court. Torture was commonplace; methods included hanging individuals by their arms from walls, stretching them on racks, waterboarding, and parading them naked through the streets. There were also horrifying sexual tortures, such as devices like the breast ripper and “the pear,” which could be inserted into bodily orifices and expanded.

This climate forced individuals to either convert or go to extremes to demonstrate their loyalty to the church.

In our contemporary society, you may be thinking that merely disagreeing with the scientific consensus doesn't re